Sensus itaque si sanus fuerit,Lucian's begins with a long meditation on the ways in which men can learn something of the nature of God from a close examination of everyday events and locations. sepi non recluditur nec murali custodia,Recludo is here used in its standard medieval sense 'shut off' rather than its classical sense, 'open, reveal'. quin possit mirabiliter atque magnifice per libertatem condicionis diffuse ac sullimiter emigrare.

Quod si quos altius erudiuit in puluere tamquam solutio tributorum, flagellum frequens et pena culparum,Lucian points out that God's mercy is available to all, whether or not they are willing to adopt the techniques he suggests for understanding God through the contemplation of post-lapsarian earth. He uses pulvis, 'dust' as a metonym for 'the earth'. si quos artat et angit pauperies rerum, putredo locorum, pietatem petentibus expando sinum, quia misericordia sumEx 22:27 .

The state of the times, the location of things and the occurence of events offer persuasive, unwritten instruction to each intelligent being.Lucian's startling opening sentence anticipates his emphasis on the ways in which the study of everyday places and events can give rise to a better understanding of the nature of God. Manifoldness attracts the eye, variety provokes the intellect; and the subtler the eyesight of each being, the more penetrating will be his insight into these things.No adjective *penetrax is listed in the DML; a more normal choice would have been penetrabilior. Certainly the field which is opened to human viewing for contemplation, consideration and reflection is so spacious and plentiful,This introductory section is riddled with imagery referring to eyesight (oculum, 'eye'; uisus, 'the power of sight'; aspectus, 'the act of looking') and the intellect (intellectum, 'the understanding'; sensus, 'insight'. that in this manifold variety fittingly might virtue be exercised and idleness reproached.This is a conventional justification for the study of history: In his preface to his , Bede offered similar reasoning: ‘Should history tell of good men and their good estate, the thoughful listener is spurred on to imitate the good; should it record the evil ends of wicked men, no less effectively the devout and earnest listener is kindled to eshew what is harmful and perverse’: Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 3.

And so, if a mind is sound,Lucian's begins with a long meditation on the ways in which men can learn something of the nature of God from a close examination of everyday events and locations. it is not enclosed by a hedge nor a wall,Recludo is here used in its standard medieval sense 'shut off' rather than its classical sense, 'open, reveal'. but rather marvellously and magnificently through its natural freedom can escape widely and without limit.

Because whether the payment of taxes, regular tribulation and penance has actually taught those in the dustLucian points out that God's mercy is available to all, whether or not they are willing to adopt the techniques he suggests for understanding God through the contemplation of post-lapsarian earth. He uses pulvis, 'dust' as a metonym for 'the earth'. , whether the poverty of everything and the rottenness of everywhere compresses and chokes them, I open my heart to those seeking tenderness, because I am compassionateEx 22:27.

Considering and reconsidering these things in my mind,Lucian has just concluded a long meditation on the possibility of understanding the divine through the observation of daily life, the sweetness of the voice that calls men to heaven (elaborating Matt 11:28), the saints who responded to this voice, Christ who came to earth in human form, and the benefits of companionship in spiritual labour. The conclusion of this meditation is marked by a paraph mark, and a marginal note intendentis conclusio, 'the end of the exploration'. I thought them worth sharing with you, most beloved brother and lord, This 'most beloved brother and lord' is Lucian's anonymous patron, who seems to have been a canon of St John's. to whom God granted an intellect to consider these sorts of things more widely and freely. Indeed, you know me to hold such respect of your character that I would without hesitation swear on the heart of the Saviour to rejoice concerning the conviviality of your acquaintance.This clause is the only citation in the DML for notio in the sense of 'acquaintance'. I received a draught of your goodwill for free: your sincerity will earn a good outcome from God.Lucian may be punning on potauerit, 'will drink' here. Now this extraordinary thing is presented to readers' eyes, which was spontaneously revealed to uncorrupted minds. For your act of kindness, sweetly lavished out of the goodness of your heart, does not go unappreciated and grow hard as a stone, but grows sweeter for being conferred.

I have not forgotten that, some months ago, with the exacting rigour of your rich mind, you explained to me the three syllables of the city in three ways. Cestria has three syllables. , Having been sent with the monastery's answer and about to visit the earl’s residence, after hearing masses in the church of the Archangel Michael, and having obtained confidence to conduct my earthly business, I thought it also worth visiting the church of our venerable predecessorPatristic and later authors often use precursoris Dei ('precursor of God') as a circumlocution for John the Baptist: see, in particular, Luke 1:76: praeibis enim ante faciem Domini parare vias eius ('for thou shalt go before the face of the Lord to prepare his ways')., where that virtuous and most piously devoted man can obtain the mercy of the eternal king for everyone who requests it. After I had left the holy church, when I briefly came to a stop in the precinct, because of its appearance, familiar since as a boy I had once learnt my letters there,Lucian gives us a rare insight into his life here, telling us that he received his basic education at St John's. I then compared present circumstances with those past, knowing human affairs to be fickle; you came over from nearby, and did not labour to conceal the sweetness of literary illumination with the darknesses of dissimulation,This clause is one of two examples cited in the DML of the past participle of literare, literatus, meaning 'literary'. but, proving yourself to be a man of learning,Lucian's patron was probably a member of the secular community attached to St John's, so literally as well as metaphorically clericus. by making things clearer, and having been greeted, you approached me eagerly, gladly stood by me , and amiably instructed me. From your breast came something which smacked of integrity, savoured of humility, and bore the odour of goodwill. What readily flows forth from one,For de facili as an adverb meaning 'easily, readily', see DML 'facilis' 1(e). completely intoxicates another,What is known to one is new to another. because often a stranger ponders what a citizen does not even consider. One person has often valued highly what another has offered as if it were little, because nothing soothes the spirit as much as an unexpectedly generous offering of affection made with integrity.

I must admit that time passed that day in a variety of ways: the castle was a nuisance, but the church was a consolation; the pride and pomposity of the age confounded me in the settlement of my business, butA very noble saying of a learned man: be proud on earth, then be afraid hereafter!This maxim is a version of Matt 20:16 ('So shall the last be first, and the first last'). the integrity and affection of the community revived me; and whatever wounds the Earl’s palace inflicted, the precinct of the Forerunner of God fully soothed. There the throat of my mind tasted how much the salt sea and maternal love can differ; we are buffetted by one, consoled by the other. A storm teaches what calm weather can grant; whatever the harsh roaring of the ocean inflicted, the mercy of my kin softened and soothed.

Meanwhile, while we were standing and talking, quickly and without warning, a proof of your manners pleasingly burst forth: you disregarded the praises and commendations of a loquacious layman with a certain holy pridesancta ... superbia, 'holy pride', is defined by Sedulius Scotus as 'when someone glories, like the apostles, in afflictions on behalf of Christ' (Collectaneum miscellananeum 13.14.46). (or, as I might more mildly say, with unrestrained scorn),Unimportant praise pains modest people; worldly praise dupes the stupid. and shunning the annoying crow by your departure, lest the reward from the Highest One were taken from you, you let the approval and empty praises of this windbag blow away. That which beneficially resounded from the trumpet of the apostles came to mind and refreshed the memory: for our glory is this, the testimony of our conscience2Cor 1:12; and elsewhere, if we receive the testimony of men, the testimony of God is greater1Jn 5:9. And Jesus did not trust himself unto the Jews, for that he knew all men, and because he needed not that any should give testimony of man, for he knew what was in manJn 2:24-5.These three quotations from the New Testament emphasise the worthlessness of human praise compared to divine favour which has been merited. By its nature, the smoke of human praise hurts the eye and deceives the soul, yet what soothes the fool does not stir the steadfast man - both the poet and the prophet clearly show this, It is unclear what Lucian means by sicut disparat litera. He may be referring to the slight similarity between the words fatuum and fortem, in which case, we might translate 'just as the [change of] letter makes the distinction’; alternatively, if litera singular is taken to mean 'letters, literature', we might translate 'literature indeed makes a distinction'. your patron will praise your game and give the thumbs upHorace, Epistulae I. 18. 66.; and from our book, heal me, O Lord, and I shall be healed: save me, and I shall be saved, for thou art my praise Jer 17:14 Jeremias. be not thou a terror unto me, thou art my hopePraise the Lord! In the Lord shall your soul be praised cf. Ps 33:3. God sees he who serves Him. in the day of affliction Jer 17:17; and I am not troubled, following thee for my pastor, and I have not desired the day of man, thou knowestJer 17:16.

Following this reasoning you duly spurned this premature tribute to your virtue, knowing how terrible the true judgement will be for men. There and then, it became shiningly clear just how little frivolity pleased you. And perhaps one does not err if one says that, with the intimacy of comradeship, the Baptist (not the reed in the mud, but the friend of the bridegroom) seasoned the vitals of his priest with this flavour.Lucian suggests his patron's ability to disregard the layman's praise comes from John the Baptist, the dedicatee of the cathedral community. The phrase amicus sponsi, 'friend of the bridegroom', comes from John 3:29, where John says he is content to be the best man at Christ's marriage to the Church. Lucian uses harundo luti, 'reed in the mud', as a metonym for the instability and inferiority of earthly life. Harundo presumably refers to Matt 11:7 and Luke 7:24. In his time, John weighed the ups and downs of worldly people with an unbiased scale, and valued the fortunes and misfortunes of men as he would cobwebs.John made his priest like unto him.consimilare is not listed in either the DML or the OLD. For spiders' webs as an image of the fragility of human works, see Isa 59:5, Osee 8:6. John, who anticipated the Lord in his humility, made you his servant on the path of holiness. You are his servant in the cathedral; he is your teacher in the Lord. Therefore to you praise is like the mud clinging to your feet.

Two monks were standing near us there. They were marked outwardly by their tonsure and their habit; if only they were inwardly inscribed with morals and virtue! Profoundly considering your behaviour, they were by remorseCompuncte, 'remorsefully', is not listed in the DML. called to good, or at least called to weigh with careful judgement how forthrightly you scorned the words of that chatterbox. Lucian continues to discuss the insignificance of praise, and to reflect on his meeting with his patron.

Therefore, leaving you and reconsidering your threefold kindness that day, namely the meeting, your conversation and your goodwill; I then began to interpret for myself the trisyllabic name of your city,Our city is trisyllabic, therefore we may explain it in this manner. considering over and over whether what is hidden from many could be made clear; and what escapes the notice of the feeble might be made manifest through perspicaciousDML lucidus, 5(c) 'perspicacious', citing only Lucian. lovers of learning. I cannot fear your judgement, since my confidence in your brotherly love compels me to imitate your thoughts on this matter. If I have said anything more or less wrong, one will respond with derision, another indulgence. But if what I say is consonant with the evidence, the learned man will offer proof and the inhabitant will give his approval. He that observeth the wind, shall not sow: and he that considereth the clouds, shall never reapEccl 11:4. This from Solomon. Each man may accept as much as he wishes; I write these trifling things for you alone. An everyday example is consoling here: however hard a man tries to be a virtuous and holy pilgrim he will be fortunate if, passing though a town, shameless dogs do not bark at him. He does not wrong or provoke them, but dumb custom always excites dogs into mad uproar.Dogs act like dogs. But we, though hoping for a kinder reception, are prepared for the future with determined single-mindedness because such modest criticisms are insignificant and winds always pass on.

Expecting kindness from you and your people ,Lucian addresses his patron here; his patron's 'people' can be understood as the community of St John's and Cestrians more broadly.The author addresses his fellow Cestrians. by whom I was bred and fostered in the mercy of God, drawn by necessity, I decided when I felt plenty of gratitude, either in writing or orally, to discuss for you very dear ones the principal place of the province, insofar as I might shiningly commend it with praise to men and with prayer to God. Chester is better known to natives, but rewards assiduous investigation. Whoever seeks to know it better will not be shackled.

Therefore, my lord brother, it seems to me, either he was a prophet or consulted a prophet,Lucian uses propheta, 'prophet' in the sense 'spokesman of God'.The concord is remarkable. who first established your city, who chose the location, who gave the city its name. For, while I want to speak concerning the present, I may not keep silent about former times, and will touch on the past.Lucian seems to be invoking Ps 138:5, where David observes God's total knowledge of past and future. In this way, perhaps, Cestria might be interpreted 'threefold', with each meaning constructed in three parts.The first interpretation of Cestria : a learned bishop, a generous archdeacon, a shining clergy. This is clearly evident in Chester today in that Chester has a learned bishop, a generous archdeaconThe name of the archdeacon of Chester when Lucian was writing does not seem to be identifiable. and a shining clergy. I call them shining because, alternately alone and with others, they, both good and kind, blessed and blessingWe might prefer to read benedicens here., praise the Lord Jesus Christ in the church of John the Baptist. But if anyone challenges me saying that my interpretation, though apt and right, may not be steadfast or perpetual,Things may change, but this seems correct at the moment. on account of the twisting wheel of fortune and the evil of the times in that this city might be assigned a bishop, not as now, but unlearned, languid and dull-witted;Bauosus, 'drivelling, dull-witted', an adjective formed from baua, 'saliva' (derived from OF bave), is only attested in the DML by a quotation from Lucian. an archdeacon greedy, hateful and vague; a clergy not indeed shining but by their mutual envy and impure lust only suited to the hellish furnace, then we may seek another interpretation to refresh the mind of the student so that if this interpretation should not apply, a second interpretation might fittingly replace it.The second interpretation of Cestria .

Accordingly, enjoying the long advantage of divine favour, Chester exhibits herself triply: she excels in the honesty of her nobles, the faith of her citizensThe honesty of her nobles, the faith of her citizens, the religion of her monks. and the religion of her monks. Venerable Earl Hugh summoned, Archbishop Anselm came to kindle life, and religion grew and flourished, restoring ancient customs. If their honesty had not flourished, dishonesty might have been a nuisance; if their piety had slept, impiety might have threatened; and ultimately, if religion had not grown, the city might have been ruined. But God, omnipotent and invisible in his majesty, augustly works visible deeds through his goodness, so that when this place was surrounded by spiteful enemies, it was manifestly, inviolably protected from calamities. While Chester has many especial patrons from amongst those most powerful in Heaven, who obtain clean air and peaceful daylight for the city; God graciously provided a member of the weaker sex,Concerning the most blessed Werburgh. most firm in her sancity, who shining with virtue and splendid virginity from her youth, to protect the citizen, and to preserve the city, whose merits suffice to defend the inhabitants against all adversaries. This daughter of a king and bride of the King protects her province from enemies in accordance with her name,Lucian subsequently describes how Werburgh prevented a major fire damaging Chester, stating that ibi necessario innotescit eius nominis euidentia, 'there she lived up to her name', alluding to its Old English etymology. because she, a co-virgin of the Virgin Mother, sweetly offers prayers to the Saviour. And therefore she easily protects the city, because her husband is the creator of the world. Indeed it is not at all hard or difficult for her to protect safe and unharmed with her glorious prayers both her suppliant flock and the humble faith of her simple people. If our depravity provokes vengeance, her sanctity averts the judge's sentence before the first scourges if we are penitent. Though it lingers in my mind, this second interpretation will be set aside and, if it pleases, a third interpretation may be advanced.

Indeed, since it is possible to offer a few words which prick the spirit as a supplement to the preceding interpretation, it is not possible to be silent. For if the nobles wilt though frosty indolence, if the citizens lament and if the prayers of the monks go unnoticed; if invasion by enemies, an assault on the city, or the expulsion of the people terrifies and confuses, the wheel of fortune and the evil of the times will cut short our laughter, and give rise not to joking or guffawing, but to deep groaning and grieving, so that we will implore Jesus himself for his mercy, through whom the afflicted are permitted to breathe a little. If enemies intend evil for us and we indiscriminately heap evil on ourselves,These things we know by frequent experience. and those who by law are placed in power do not cease to destroy us, and this is not mitigated by the feeble prayers of monks, or by saints sleeping peacefully in comfort in God's heavenly kingdom; it should be recorded that the same citizens, their hearts desiccated, will retreat from natural customs and from the expense of alms.

I have briefly said these things for the consolation of the citizens both so that our lords fear God's judgement and so that monks prove themselves to be men of mercy under the holy and faithful protection of God.

Having explained these things in passing in a digression, we come to the third interpretation of the name of our Chester.

The very same God was responsible then,Lucian has just described the provisions Solomon made for his kingdom, narrated in 3Kings 4:22-30. whose power, wisdom and goodness are unchanged even now.We might amend to mutantur. He who fed Jerusalem then, even now feeds our Chester, not through the diligence of Solomon, but through the indulgence of the Saviour;Because it is the same God. not as the due reward of our wretchedness, but as a result of his generous mercy; not through the strenuous efforts of twelve prefects, but through the piety of venerable patrons, chiefly Peter, who excels in the company of the apostles, who, trusted by Christ with his sheep, provides healthy pasture and attentive care. He is the most faithful shepherd of the human flock, for whom he even died on the cross.Peter's martyrdom may have occured in A. D. 64 and is described in the Apocryphal Acts of St Peter. And he placed his shrine in the centre of our city,The inhabitant can see it with his eyes. so that his compassionate, maternal soul and his affectionate disposition, the quintessence of his heart,Chester's place at the centre of Peter's concerns (medulla cordis) mimics the place of his church in the centre of the city (in centro urbis). might protect us more sweetly and caringly. And if we disdain to pay attention, he does not cease to open his heart. Being wholly affectionate, he serves to keep the citizens safe from enemies.Note the paronomasia between totus, 'whole' and tutos, 'safe'. Happily intoxicated from the fountain of the true God, he continually says: thou knowest that I love theeJn 21:17 and, proferring the truth of love, he busies himself guarding the people for God the Father.

But lest I stray even further and obscure everything, here is the third threefold meaning of the name Cestria : The third interpretation of Cestria . the unfailing goodness of our Father provides us with supplies from servants in three places, from Ireland, from the Welsh Marches and from the shires of England.The Irish, the Welsh and the English. Chester should appreciate God's generosity and respond not with acid ingraditude, but sweetly and humbly with gracious obedience, wholly understanding how Ireland honours her with fish and port dues, Wales brings meat enough and England delivers sacks of grain. Chester should eat her bread joyfully, cordially praising the Author of Light, not turning away from a spirit so generous, but piously acknowledging what the Heavenly Wisdom paternally dispensed. I, as you surely know, do not weigh this lightly, but bless God, who provides for us at the extremity of the world. And because this matter is so clear, the reader should do likewise, not confound nature by scorning his native city.Even beasts and birds love their dens and nests. Indeed if a sudden unfortunate necessity carried a man away, perhaps to somewhere beyond India, he would be obliged everywhere to sing the praises of his homeland. For even if the city were less amenable he should not scorn or hate it because it might easily come to pass that a sly and cunning foreigner, a refugee, becomes an naturalised inhabitant and provides a reproach for the ignorant citizen,Solomon: a wise servant shall rule over foolish sonsPro 17:2. smiling that he does not have such a homeland and declining to return home. I expect there are many people beneath the arc of heaven who have not heard of Chester and who do not have nearly such an abundance of bread, meat and fish, and seek to defend a series of camps by force, and struggle to celebrate festivals. We may therefore conclude, - just as Daniel said,Daniel. interpreting the king's dream: the dream is true and its interpretation is true Dan 2:45 so we may say the name of Chester is true and its explanationDML only cites Lucian for Planatio in the sense 'explanation, exegesis'. is true. We have spoken concerning Chester's name, we shall now add something concerning its location and customs.

Chester is primarily a place to live which was built as a city and its position invites consideration.Concerning the site of Chester. Placed in western Britain it was once a resting place for legions coming from afar and, protecting the limit of the Roman Empire, sufficed to guard, one might say, the routes to the Irish. For, set opposite the north coast of Ireland, she opens a lane to visiting ships and sailors and is served by boats for the continual convenience of travellers and merchants. Meanwhile to the east, she enjoys a view not only of the papal seat and Christendom but also sees the whole globe, Chester is a mirror for herself. so that they offer a spectacle to attentive eyes: the brave deeds of our fathers, a long series of thingsVirgil, i. 641, so that whatever particular people have done well in particular places at particular times becomes better known and whatever was done badly is avoided.

Chester has four gates corresponding to the four winds: from the East it looks towards India; from the West towards Ireland;There are four climes, some near, some far, on the four sides. from the North to greater Normandyi. e. Norway, the legendary homeland of the Normans, as an interlinear gloss, Norweiam, makes clear.; from the South to the narrow corner which God's severity left the Welsh to punish their innate rebelliousness. The English once subsumed Wales into England causing bitter discord and hatred Every kingdom divided in itself will be foresakenMatt 12:25. which still afflict the surrounded people, when they tearfully read about these events.

Meanwhile God has given our Chester an enriching river, which follows the line of the city walls and teems beautifully with fish,Concerning the estuary. and, in the south, a port for ships coming from Aquitaine, Spain, Ireland and Germany, which, with Christ as their helmsman, bring industrious merchants to replenish the city with a variety of goods, so that, consoled in all ways by the kindness of our God, we may often drink more and better wine, than those places in the region which glory in their success in viticulture. In addition, the daily tide does not cease to render a very generous bounty from the sea, Concerning the tides. which from ports both known and hidden ceaslessly grants or loans things both pleasant and unpleasant, and by its ebb and flow brings things forth and takes them away. In our own time it has brought a great catch of fish from neighbouring areas and took the lives of fishermen.The inhabitant knows this really happened. Insatiable beyond measure, they overdrained the sea and when they wanted to drain it further, they were engulfed by waves.It is slightly obscure what happened: does Lucian mean the nearby waters were overfished and that the fisherman were killed fishing in more remote, dangerous waters? This most special shoreline still delights our gaze, now being wet, now dry, obeying the powerful Creator Concerning the estuary. giving rise to a marvellous wonder when in the same place and the same day Now the fisherman goes by boat, now a pedestrian prepares to go by foot. The spirtually dead and the stupid do not consider this. God makes there both a very suitable crossing for travellers and a deep sea in which marine creatures might swim. Naive or seasoned, anyone ignorant of the nature of the sea may perhaps disdain to believe this, but their eyes will confirm it.

Chester also has two perfectly straight streets intersecting like the blessed cross,Concerning the streets of Chester which form four roads , culminating at the four gates, mystically revealling that the grace of the Great King dwells in the very city , who, through the four evangelists, showed the twin law of the old and new testaments to be completed through the mystery of the holy cross. The internal truth of this arrangement is consecrated and cannot be faulted; it nourishes the observer. Nor do we fear a fair appraisal, because what is committed to the memory of letters must already be perfect in its truth. But if any foreigner tests the account, confirming it, he may see the text with one eye and the city with the other. According to my burning desire, I thoroughly devote my innermost self to the will of the Eternal Father, The reader is reminded. so that a qualified observer may understand that the true God, who arranged these streets in the shape of the glorious cross, does not cease to be a most gentle protector to the lovely city and its dear citizens.

It is also worth understanding how fittingly it is that, all things being equal, a marketplace for the selling of things should be placed in the middle of the city,Concerning the marketplace. where, with an abundance of merchandise, particularly food available, a native or a foreigner may come to buy provisions. Doubtlessly, as with the eternal bread which came from heaven which, according to the prophets, was formed in the centre of the earthThe 'eternal bread which came from heaven' is Christ (see Jn 6:59). The prophets include Ez 5:5 and Ps 73:12., God wanted to supply all nations of the world equally.God, our king, created before time our means of salvation in the middle of the earth. Let everyone wise observe this joyfully because almighty God provided for us with paternal goodness, and arranged fully and nobly for the prosperity of the citizens. For anyone standing in the middle of the marketplaceThis derives from my God's true kindness, not from my quibbling. may turn his face to the east and examine the position of the churches noting John, precursor of the Lord, to the east Peter the apostle to the west, Werburgh the virgin to the north, and Michael the Archangel to the south. There is nothing truer than this verse: Upon they walls, O Jersualem, I have appointed watchmenIsa 62:6 . Nothing is sweeter than this evidence that God gave us such guardians : it is a sacred offering and a charming mystery. It comforts men's spirits and encourages contemplation.

Indeed no-one is happy Lucian urges Chester to appreciate God's generosity, and warns the city that he can relocate his treasure if Chester is ungrateful. if his treasure-house is surrounded by cunning foxes, if it is harassed and damaged, if it is frequently captured and recovered because if it is exposed, it will be stolen. Chester, recognise the treasure-house of grace which has been entrusted to your loving care! Lift your heavy eyelids from sleep!If only what is passionately advocated were passionately followed. Weigh carefully the sweet gift which the Highest One has given you!

O beloved city, weigh carefully the kindness of your eternal father,The writer addresses the citizens. and do not scorn the advice of your foster-son, because I loyally aspire to imitate you. Do not think my small exhortations to be mere flatulence, because I passionately love my citizens! Understand what it means that Christ, who assigned us one principal guardian,i. e. St Werburgh. appointed watchmen against your nightly fears! One of them would suffice against any attack by a cunning enemy, but, as is fitting, her excellence shines out. The tally is not increased because she is weak, but so that God might be known as indescribably good, because he wanted those who share his power and goodness to be our guardians.

Those powerful in heaven are wholly able to help the imprisoned. Lucian uses carcer, 'prison' as a metonym for post-lapsarian life on earth. It is not clear whether praedare should be taken in the usual sense of 'despoil', or in the rarer sense of 'provide beforehand'.. Those who happily rule with God on the mountain,Lucian uses monte, 'mountain', as a metonym for heaven. readily restrain hostile men in the valley.Lucian uses ualle, 'valley', as a metonym for the earth. The allies of Satan easily fall to the saints of God, who is powerful, wise and good.From Job: let the companions of him that is not, dwell in his tabernacle, let brimstone be sprinkled in his tentJob 18:15. He is not because he ceased to be with God, because his truth and charity died. Thousands of thousandsSee Apoc 5:11. attend to him, who makes provision for us with indescribable grace. When those who share his eternal majesty are assigned to guard terrestrial beings, they easily overwhelm and banish whoever resists those predestined to life.

And as soon as pilgrimsChristian writers frequently described life as a pilgrimage to the true home, heaven. faithfully seek help, it is quickly forthcoming and so God should be glorified. Let my fellow citizen heed this and acknowledge God's goodness, seizing upon the testimony of scripture:From the Book of Wisdom. but thou being master of power, judgest with tranquility, and with great favour disposest of usWisd 12:18 . Let our understanding surge in great deference to hisreason and love, so that we may examine it somewhat, even if our aptitude for purposeful contemplation is often dead or listless. Let this act of thanks be richly repaid, and the devotion of the citizens grow more fervent, so that our simple filial love might appreciate God's paternal affection. Those who keep us safe in our dusty settlements rejoice in heaven before God's face.

Our city, as we said, is protected by four holy guardians: from the east by the merciful precursor of the Lord; from the west by the powerful doorkeeper of heaven; from the north by the watchful beauty of the Virgin; from the south by the marvellous renown of the Angel. Concerning the four gates of our Chester: respectively, concerning John, Peter, the Virgin and the Angel. There are also many others who surround us and keep us healthy but, with the deference of all who follow Christ, it pleased him to install four principal guardians in a mystical square. Many devoted saints serve Chester, but four are placed, according to their abilities, where protection is most required. Therefore John the Baptist, prophetic and virtuous, venerable and illustrious, who once fled the tumult of society and went into the wilderness, who watched the rise of the morning star, seeing how charming the Lord was, appearing from the virgin womb, who pleased to pray for us with his spirit and his blood, is beautifully located on the south side of the head of the street heading east. He most fittingly has custody of believers in the east of the city, he who preceeded the son of God a short while before his birth, who was honoured to foretell his marvellous birth, judiciously identifyingthe lamb of God, who took away the sin of the world through his unique innocence, so that we might rise into grace after remission of our sins, who, through the sin of our parents, end our lives in death. It is thus. He, filled with the fruitful gifts of God, may dispel all worldly sin. The high-born and chosen herald of the Highest Prince is aptly placed at the eastern gate so that he might open the gates of the prison, and inspire universal humanity to faith in the son of God.

Our John, so marvellously wonderful, well-endowed with divine enlightenment and worthy of everyone's praise; powerful in the King's palace, affectionate and merciful to those who live in the dust, the precursor of the everlasting Lord, excellent in his magnificent virtues, Concerning John's Gate. is fit to defend Chester from his position and sweetly keep her safe and sound.

Worrying that he could not ensure our safety through his own sanctity, or not wanting to spurn his comrade, he summoned Peter the Apostle, the gatekeeper of paradise, to ensure peace and safety for the orphans who, according to Jonah, know not how to distinguish between their right hand and their left handJonah 4:11,Lucian implicitly compares Chester and Nineveh, a city destroyed by God for its pride. so that they might more easily excuse the unfortunate actions of the citizens, more forcibly avert retribution and circulate grace more freely in accordance with the vows they made before God's throne. Proving themselves to be Christ's agents in the management of the mysteries of God - one on the watchtower, the other in the bishop's throneJohn the Baptist, who first acknowledged Christ, must be the 'one on the watchtower', obliging us to identify St Peter as 'the one on the bishop's throne', alluding to his status as the first pope. This is awkward since the cathedral in Chester, the seat of the bishop of Coventry, was actually dedicated to St John. - each encourages the other with confederate joy.

It falls to me to guard the sun's gateLucian imagines a dialogue between John the Baptist and Peter. John the Baptist is speaking here., to you is entrusted the water gate, to you whom the creator of the sea mercifully called forth to control the prevailing tides, marvellously altering your role, so that instead of catching fish, you convert peopleFor this commonplace, see Lk 5:10, and instead of facing the billow of the sea, you heal souls with love and devotion.

Therefore, noble born man,i. e. St Peter. do not be ashamed to be noble in your appearance; established by the eternal Lord to watch over the health of the entire globe and guard Chester, as if it were God's fortress, with your goodness.Lucian alludes to another etymology of Cestria, namely castra, 'camp'. She remains safe with you as a watchman against harmful attacks and nocturnal terrors.

Let the citizens behold, and at least may the learned inhabitant observe the voice of the Lord: thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my churchMatt 16:18. How great is the consequence of these words, how true they are within the walls of Chester, particularly in the West, where the church of the Lord Saviour is placed near the Water Gate and is the true ground and strength of the church of Peter, chief of the apostles;Lucian inverts Christ's words by arguing that the church of the Holy Trinity is the base and foundation of the church of St Peter in Chester. thus its name is fitting and shows the hidden logic of things, so that the eye might see the light and the intelligent man acknowledge the sweetness of the works of God and the proven truth shine forth to readers roused from sleep. Therefore, in accordance with the letter of Paul, measuring ourselves by ourselves2Cor 10:12, and endeavouring to appear up to date (although it is not possible to be up to date for a long time, because the wheel of fortune twists and turns like a sea tide) our words are corroborated by the grey hair of two venerable priests The testimony of two priests., Walter and Andrew,

These two names are touched with red in the manuscript.

A 'Walter the Priest of Holy Trinity' witnessed a grant of land at Claverton (Ches.) to the Benedictine Nunnery of St Mary c. 1170: abstract in Calendar of the Patent Rolls ... Henry IV, i. 301 (no. 6); for the date Irvine 1907, 95. A Waltero ecclesiae sanctae Trinitatis presbytero ('Walter, priest of the church of the Holy Trinity') witnessed CCALS DVE 1/R1/2 (printed Ormerod 1882, i. 429), a document which records a transaction which occurred shortly after the celebration in Chester of Hugh de Nonant's consecration as bishop of Coventry on 31 January 1188. Taylor 1912, 26 also refers to a document witnessed by 'Andrew, chaplain of St Peters' and 'Walter the chaplain' witness a grant, but, unless the dating of c. 1225 is wrong, this document cannot be relevant: Calendar of the Patent Rolls ... Henry IV, i. 299 (no. 16), Irvine 1907, 98-9.

'Andrew the chaplain of St Peters' witnessed a charter of St Mary's, Chester's Benedictine Nunnery, in c. 1200: Irvine 1904, 16 (no. II).

He gave us Peter as Chester's patron, whom he earlier appointed steward of the heavenly court , so that decreasing all evils, he should obtain peace and grace for his poor sheep.Concerning Rome and Chester: a comparison. He chose Rome so that he might speak to the world, Chesterso that he might defend her.This and the next excerpt are just two samples of Lucian's long comparison of Chester and Rome. For further discussion, see Doran 2007. There he placed a universal throne, here he established a special shrine, there writing laws, here rescuing us from the burden of labour.

The most blessed Peter remains with us, protecting the edge of the world for the glory of God so that Britain can believe itself blessed by God and Ireland should not escape from the nets of the faith. It thus pleased Peter to erect his church in the western limits of the cityConcerning Peter's Gate. so that, looking forward from his precincts, he can guard his sheep and, looking backward, he can watch over Ireland. The Italian sees him making a fuss, the Englishman him resting.Lucian conflates St Peter with the churches dedicated to his honour in Rome and Chester. There he is found in the law courts, here in dens of sanctuary. There he is usually harassed, here he is at leisure. There the hustle of a rabble, here the solace of calm. There a nation makes a din, here very few seek him. There he is famed for handling lawsuits, here he is carefree.Lucian's remark that Chester is free from curae, 'cares', may be a pun on the Roman curia. There indeed is the tumult of business, here tranquillity of leisure.In Rome, he has authority; in Chester, goodwill.

Thus far concerning St Peter's Gate.We have said these things concerning St Peter's Gate, humbly requesting the support of our Lord so that the city of Chester, which long ago built a temple for the great leader on earth, can anticipate his goodwill in heaven.St Peter's stood several feet above street level on the remains of the headquarters of the Roman fortress. Distinctive fabric may have remained a visible part of the church into the eleventh century; see Laughton 2008, 41. This may explain why Lucian refers to the great age of St Peter's. It also makes his comparison between Chester and Rome even more resonant.

But now let some infallible evidence come to us from the Book of Kings in the Old Testament, let the widow of SarephtaConcerning the widow who fed Elias. support our interpretation perfectly.The story of the widow of Sarephta is told in 3Kings 17:9-16. She wanted to collect two pieces of wood, starving, she wanted to eat, not knowing at that moment what would be evident to future generations that hardships suffered bring unexpected joys,Notice Lucian's use of hyperbaton: gaudia is qualified by inopina and permissi qualifies dolores. not knowing God had sent to her a visitor who, rewarding her hospitality, would make fruitful her pot of meal and would pour her an endless abundance of oil. But this verse, beautifully anticipating future events, summons this widow beautifully and splendidly through prophecy to when, with the passing of days and years, her man will have bowed his head and sent forth his spirit on Mount Calvary. By a high and venerable mystery, it can be seen she was collecting the wood for Christ's cross before the time of his passion,The mystery of the cross evident in the widow's wood. the cross discarded and trampled by the wretched Jews, but now through the enlightment of grace and the faith in the son of God exceedingly delightful to Christians. And so he provides us these two pieces of wood so that we can give one to the precursor of God and to his gatekeeper and so that we can give the other to the Virgin and the Archangel, since, piously and foresightedly guarding us from the four winds, they provide for our city, their seat, the consolation of grace and the reassurance of guardianship,The wise reader understands the implication. in that the former two lay one piece of wood in the straight line of truth and the latter two lay the other piece of wood across with the joy of affection. Thus it happens that in the position of our gates and the layout of our streets is recalled to us the living symbol and venerable mystery of the cross,It is evident in the streets of Chester. and that which gives peace and protection to believers the world over, douses city dwellers with health and joy.

But now, having thoroughly discussed both St John's East Gate and St Peter's West Gate, it is time to discuss the Virgin's gateNow concerning the gate of the Virgin. and say something about it just as the Virgin's bridegroom has given us something to say. The fervent devotion of the inhabitants always compels love, but the seriousness of the subject matter strikes one speechless, when I should offer something in exchange for the beauty of the city and the generosity of the citizens. But granted that the learned reader detects great difference between one style and another and brings every letter to be weighed up and makes it his business to focus on such an examination whereas a fool and a blockhead does not even suspect that there is anything to be inquired after, ¶It is truly said that there is no showing a blind man because he lacks eyes. let us even so give attention to providing such learned dispositions not with polished eloquence as much as with clear evidence of the facts. Indeed very often things have their own unwritten language, which without narrative or expression, delight the human mind.Lucian appears to use oblecto deponently here, a use not recorded in the DML. Thus for marvellous reasons God, the creator of all and most just ordainer, assigned the North Gate to the Virgin.

Concerning the raging fire which spared no-one.Likewise fire attacked the streets of the city,Lucian describes the great fire of 1180 entirely in the present tense for rhetorical effect; in my translation, I have used the past tense for readability. Notice also Lucian's heavy use of alliteration in this passage. began to lick at the petty gains of days and years, to level what had been built, not sparing what had been laid out, to destroy beautiful things, to punish sins, to ruin altars, to pay back the unkindest souls, to overthrow propriety, to bring about desolation, to bemuse the wits of those arriving, and to bring confusion to those remaining. That name came unprompted into the memory, the venerable word came to mind, the people called, the unworthy sought, the unwell groaned;Concerning the Virgin's Gate the Virgin was recollected, the Virgin was recalled, the Virgin was remembered, was awoken as if from sleep, was called back as if in the street,It is possible that Werburgh's shrine was carried through the streets either in an attempt to avert the fire or to save her relics should the fire attack the monastery. was invoked as if positioned on high. There was no-one so simple or foolish among the people who then did not know the etymology of her name.She is called Werburgh because she protects the town. She was struck by the strongest prayer of communal need and was asked to step forward to tame the madness of the flames, to minimise the losses, the impoverishment, the scandal. Nothing was more feared than that she should postpone or delay. There the meaning of her name became unavoidably clear.

Let the learned inhabitant of Chester assess carefully that which is so elegantly expressed in the Book of Job, that nothing upon earth is done without a voice causeJob 5:6;¶Why the Virgin was placed in the North. and thus by what authority, by what arrangement, Almighty God chose to assign the North Gate to St Werburgh. For when he said through the prophet from the North shall break forth evil upon all the face of the whole earthJer 1:14, it was a necessary consequence that opposite that furnace of grief he should with his hand vigilantly set someone not only strong and skillful of hand but with a robust, strong and plentiful virtue. For where all evil is arrayed and the author of all evil lies in wait, the simplicity and innocence of one virgin pierces and ravages; but by whom might she be believed sufficient? The precursor of he who confounded the king of sin can come to help against the the evil cold and malicious heat of the north,In the Book of Jeremiah, there is a cold cistern which is interpreted as that very evil.See Jer 6:7. Peter can come who spurning the authorities, withstood pagan princes, Michael can come to notable combats, who defeated the dragon. Surely it cannot be said that blind fortune placed the Virgin in that dangerous place? And if none of these three guardians is willing to abandon his gate , the Saviour has provided our city with many other qualified guardians and she may take James the apostleThe status of St James's in Lucian's time is uncertain. His contemporary, Gerald of Wales, believed it to have been the last refuge of King Harold after his defeat at the Battle of Hastings. See Lewis and Thacker, 2005, 126. as her preserver against any malice from the North or indeed Martin the ConfessorThe advowson of St Martin's belonged to the Orby family in the early thirteenth century, and later passed to St John's. See Lewis and Thacker, 2005, 141. or even the worthy and lovable Olave.St Olave's was presented to St Werburgh's in 1119 by Richard the Butler. See Lewis and Thacker, 2005, 148.

The truth of what I say is self evident: how often do English and Irish travellers find in the monastery sweet relief,If you notice this, why do you not acknowledge it? sacred lodging and shelter from the weather, torn between remaining and carrying on? There they are assigned quarters, while theyawait a favourable tide and wind. Werburgh, the royal virgin, gives them refreshment, rest to the weary and respite to those tired from journeys on land and sea. Recalling the memory as he returns home, the refreshed man will say: this is the people of the Lord and they are come forth out of his landEz 36:20; they are a school of saints, an honorable brotherhood; let honey flow for them, and the bitter briar bear spiceVirgil, Ecl 3.89.Only the niggardly will remain silent. A man should reflect, God will reward an ungrateful beast. When so many visit, it is impossible that He should not come who said memorably I was a stranger and you took me incf. Matt 25:35. This has no truer meaning than that you will be citizens in my city. Everyone must undertake to receive the king with generous and willing hospitality, for which they shall be rewarded with his greater generosity.Concerning the Virgin's Gate. Who will think to take care of the king of heaven, so fecund and glorious? He will only hand out his spare bread and short waterIsa 30:20 where he sees a burning faith.

The monastery, like a divine fortress, keeps those in Chester warm;Lucian alludes to the possible derivation of Cestria, the Latin name for Chester, from Latin Castra, 'camp', an etymology quoted by Bradshaw and interpreted as a reference to Chester's Roman history. Lucian christianises the etymology by making Chester a Dei castra, 'divine fortress'. Dei castra was indeed a common medieval Latin circumlocution for 'monastery' (DML castrum, 1c). would that it might always do so! But if someone who claims to know about facts and places allows us, on the basis of evidence and with brevity, to infer what is true - St Werburgh's gate has a natural connection with the nearby suburb. This is a fact known from personal experience by anyone who has found himself more than usually deprived of bread, who has been constrained and removed from the distribution of bread.Lucian is punning here on the near homophones, porta, 'gate' and patria, 'suburb'. His point seems to be that the inhabitants of the suburb know St Werburgh's to nourish Chester, because they can receive both literal and spiritual bread from the monastery, that is, both alms and the eucharist. When Lucian was writing, St Oswald's parish covered a large area, including the North East part of the walled city, the abbot's manor of St Thomas outside the North Gate, and other monastic estates further afield. The chief place of worship for the parishioners was the altar of St Oswald in the south nave aisle of St Werburgh's. See Lewis and Thacker 2005, 150-1.¶He who understands what he reads here should mull over what the author has frankly said. It should also be understood how the monastery of St Werburgh is surrounded by four houses of Cistercian monks ,There is a cross-shaped diagram illustrating the location of these four monasteries in the lower margin of fol. 60v. It is reproduced as the frontispiece of Taylor 1912 which are dedicated to our lady, the queen of heaven,i. e. the Virgin Mary for the consolation and future peace of those adrift in this world. For to the front Combermere , to the back Basingwork , and to the sides, these monasteries are arranged in the shape of a cross, like the praises of heralds, suggesting that whatever is found in the middle will be bright and nourishing.Lucian is referring to Basingwork, Combermere, Stanlow and Poulton. Basingwork, Flintshire was founded in 1131 as a dependency of Savigny by Ranulf II. Combermere, another dependency of Savigny, was founded in 1133. Poulton and Stanlaw, both like Combermere in Chester, were daughter houses of Combermere founded in 1146x1158 and 1172 respectively. For further details, see Knowles and Hadcock, 1971, 110-28. Certainly the east-west axis, representing the living tree and gallows on which the Lord died, is somewhat longer and the north-south axis, like the cross-bar of the cross, is shorter.

Surely the inhabitant should perceive these things if the reader can? Our spirit is revived whenever we recall them. What I describe is physically evident in the city.

Such therefore is Michael, the guardian of paradise, whom the fellow citizens of the angels honour and through whom God wanted to honour the Cestrians. There he stands deservedly in the divine gaze, and may thereby more sweetly hold and guard Chester according to his office. He who on God's behalf exiled from the arc of heaven those who rebelled, drives out and destroys the enemies of Chester. Following wise advice, he placed his camp in the south so that to whoever the glorious virgin Werburgh judges victorious in the north he can provide true peace in the midday sun.Michael and Werburgh. For, assigned the two entrances to street, they together undertook the preservation of the two gates , which was very fitting because virginity is akin to being an angel. Enough has been said about St Michael's Gate and the text carries on as planned.

But it is pleasing to recapitulate very briefly the four entry gates: Recapitulation. John watches from the east so that goodness might spring forth, Peter from the west so that wickedness might die, Werburgh from the north so that enmity might be confounded, Michael from the south so that eternal life might be earnt. Cestrians also have other suitably excellent guardians of the city and protectors of its citizens, who are fitted, and count it their delight, to cherish the inhabitants and to encourage them and promote their causes before God's presence.The more you drink the waters of God, the sweeter you will find them. This is what regular practice shows, trust the men of old! For since they are full of sweetness and sanctity, they drink from the stream of eternity, which eternity it behooves them, with tenderness of heart and benevolence of spirit, make available to their wards. I have judged these four gates worth depicting, O city of Chester, so that what the reader has in books, the inhabitant may hold in his gaze and memory. I remember your heavenly piety and continual mercy, with which you once nourished me during my first years, and when I was unable to distinguish between opposite propositions,This suggests Lucian received an education in dialectic at St John's: see DML opponere, 13. you taught me with letters. May you be honoured with divine privileges and heavenly mercy, sweet, local province, may you earn help and protection from the author of the universe. May He open to you his heart who washed away our sins on the wooden beam of the holy cross, and may you rejoice in his name, which is filled with the nectar of faith.

Let the glorious virgin of virgins guard your peace,Lucian begins to talk about the Virgin Mary. she who revealled the purest heart under a cloaking of truth so that we could admire the incarnate son of God with eyes unworthy and sin-stained. As a delightful mystery, she wanted to build for herself two churches within the walls, to show manifestly that she can both protect youin the present and earn you eternal life, if you serve her. In one church, the Earl, the leader of the citizens, customarily performs the divine service with his court,This is the church of St Mary on the Hill, granted by Earl Ranulph to St Werburgh's in the mid twelfth century. in the other church, miraculously, the female sex marvellously battles.This is the Benedictine nunnery of St Mary, founded in the mid twelfth century by Ranulph II. See Harris, 1980, 146-50. You sleep through this spectacle, beloved city; sloth weighs down your eyelids. You frequently run to see dogs fighting, fierce mastiffs, to see how dreadfully they mangle bulls and bears. A very few years ago, you excitedly rushed outside the walls, regardless of age, sex or estate, so that scarcely one little old woman remained indoors, Concerning the jousting before John, the king's Son, and Philip of Worcester.Philip of Worcester was one of the household knights of Prince, later King John. He witnessed 15 comital acta before 1194 and reappeared in John's royal household: see Church 1999, 22. Taylor 1912, 10 suggests the combat took place in 1186, when John and Philip were waiting at Chester to sail to Ireland. The imply that Philip was John's deputy in Ireland: Christie, 1887, 33, 35. to watch two men armed and on horseback fight, and, on that plain to joust, as I might confidently say, foreshadowing future events,Given the anonymity of the two protagonists, it is difficult to say why their combat should have been a prognostication of future events (futurorum presagio). when on their own without an army but nevertheless with frenzied strength, in the presence of the king's son and another nobleman they toyed with each other but not in jest and sought praise from the lips of those watching as they fought, spurring their horses and inflaming their passions. According to your wishes, the Englishman triumphed and overcame his opponent; by that the pride of the mighty was pricked and the way of life of the meek strengthenedNote these things. when many watching expected another outcome. But whether these things signified anything great, anything small, or nothing at all, having the empty appearance of a trifle, compare them with that show of purity, beauty and peace, think how blessedly, how preciously, they reflect on earth the life of angels. You have not outside the walls but within themConcerning nuns, servants of God. an unalloyed example of virtue.

Therefore let my reader carefully notice how this lady, our Virgin of virgins, whom, in accordance with the facts, we said has two churches within the walls dedicated to her memoryConcerning the churches of our Lady, the blessed Mary . was happy to establish a third outside the walls near the church of John, precursor of the Lord,This is the White Chapel, a chapel dedicated to St Mary within the precincts of St John's, which was in use as a grammar school in 1353. It was mentioned in the Domesday Book as a monasterium. a truly beautiful location with great historical significance. Certainly at Nazareth in Galilee, having been greeted by the Archangel Gabriel when full of joy concerning the holy spirit and the salvation of the entire world Mary went into the hill country with hasteLuke 1:39 and she entered into the house of Zachary, and saluted ElizabethLuke 1:40, her kinswoman. Evidently she had a most sweet and sublime conversation with the pregnant woman because of the heavenly messenger and the common joy of all creation, though compared to the the aged woman she was more unencumbered and free, more fecund and fertile, and though a young virgin, higher and more eminent, who would behave with pious obedience carrying in her womb her son who later washed the feet of the apostles.

Therefore, thanking Christ for the fortune of his family like his mother thanking the mother of the Lord, John the Baptist very properly and beautifully established a custom in Chester,Concerning the procession made by the clerks of Chester between the two churches on holy days. by which on holy days and Sundays, with choirs proceeding and their very sweet voices resounding they visit the church of the glorious Virgin and mother of the Lord with great devotion and with the formalities typical of that venerable clergy most dutifully visit them to the glory of the eternal king. It is as if the most illustrious Baptist had spoken to those attending to him in both word and deed. We must try to act with meekness and justness because this may be seen three times in history: once, often and always.Lucian uses the exegetical technique of allegory to trace the historical and spiritual resonances of Mary's visit to Elizabeth. Note how he conflates the spatial (Judea, Chester) and temporal (eternity).Once, often, always: the first in little-known Judah, the second in Chester, the third in eternity. We should pay back the queen of heaven with most fruitful kindness and goodwill when, with increasing benefit, we undertake to lavish most fitting praise on her by visiting, since she once on earth deigned to greet my mother, so that we may earn her glorious prayers in heaven to always and eternally share our hymns with angels.

We will now say something about a few little things that remain: the inhabitant of Chester should notice, leaving the East Gate, how three roads are presented to him and how they and their names prove to be beautiful subjects for consideration; indeed, not only beautiful, but also congenial. For if he walks a little way directly out of the city, a place immediately appears in front which they call the village of Christ;Concerning the three roads which appear to those leaving Chester and what escapes the notice of many the about neighbouring villages. if he turns to the right, another place appears which they call the Old Ford; if however he turns to the left, he has come to the place which they rightly call the Valley of Demons, since it is a hiding place for robbers.

We may use this to show that everything happens as a consequence of a moral reason since he finds Christ to be the true east, who goes straightly; he who strays to the right in defiance of scripture will show himself to have strayed at the Day of Judgement; he who turns to the left, will not be able to avoid injury. We should admit two sources of error, in that to the right is excessive sternness and to the left is the lax preservation of morals and harmed whatever way he deviates, to the right bitten by dragons to the left robbed by thieves, the righteous man learns by practice to go straight ahead in the future and, for his health, to avoid detours. It is read, indeed, that between two evils the middle path is virtue.cf. Horace, 1. 18. 9 And John says in the scriptures make straight the way of the Lord, make straight his paths,Luke 3:4The wording of the quotation conflates several of the Gospel accounts (cf. Matt 3:3, Mark 1:3 and John 1:23). because he who walks innocently, walks confidently. And often a life led simply and innocently will end more happily than one led in accordance with cunning and ambitious intelligence. For he who through an obstinate belief in his exalted understanding abandons the royal highway for the uncertainties either side,Note. straying to the left or the right, does not tread these proud diversions in joy. From this nothing more useful is learnt than to advance straight through streets and the gates of cities and to live rightly because one comes to the true east through a journey travelled straight.This paragraph is an elaborate comparison of the geography of the area to the east of Chester and the correct trajectory of the Christian life. The lucem ... orientis, 'true east' is Christ.

Even the Saxon word for the place, which is Cestria, meaning city, should be heeded in every possible way,The name. since its etymology shines forth to the observant. We can cite from history the example of Gloucester which the Roman Emperor Claudius established, Leicester which Lear, king of the Britons, founded and Rochester, which, according to BEDE, a certain chieftain called Rof held in days of yore. For Claudius and Lear, see Geoffrey of Monmouth, (Thorpe 1966, 121, 81). For Rof, see Bede, , ii.3 (Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 143. Therefore the learned inhabitant dwelling amongst us prudently directs his attention to notice how, not without significance, when various cities have taken their names from their location, in memory of their founder, or by some accident the name of our Chester resounds maternally, magnificently and uniquely.Lucian's point is that, while other cities took their names from their founders, Chester derives its name from Old English ceaster, meaning 'city'. In other words, Chester is the vey essence of a city. We can consider ourselves excellent because we have those most powerful in paradise as faithful servants giving us goodwill and prayers, and Christ is the chief guardian. Indeed Chester is truly and vividly esteemed a city and the God of all deigns to protect and redeem it for all time. For if it were not kept warm by grace, whoever guards the city would watch in vain. And when the city tearfully confesses his sins the Lord does not suffer those devoted to him to perish.

If anyone should seek, either in full or the part, to compare the habits of the localsConcerning the habits of the locals. to those living elsewhere on earth they will be found somewhat dissimilar, somewhat better to other Englishmen, and somewhat the same.Several of the qualities Lucian lists are ambivalantly positive. despite his suggestion that they constitute quod est optimum . When compared to usual habits, they seem particularly sociable in feasting, lively at table, generous in hospitality, quick to anger, eloquent, intolerant of servitude or subjection, kindly to the afflicted, compassionate to the poor, favourable to their kin, not working too hard, free from the gall of deceit, not at all greedy, honest, often borrowing other people's property without leave, richly supplied with woods and meadows and with meat and cattle, adjacent to the Welsh on one side and, through a long exchange of customs, for the most part similar. It should also be noticed that the county palatine of Chester, enclosed to the side by the Forest of Lyme,Concerning the Forest of Lyme. by privilege is set apart from the rest of the English and through the indulgence of its kings and the merits of its earls, and by popular opinion has been more accustomed to follow the sword of the earl rather than the crown of the king,¶The people obey the earl but do not fear the king. and within its bounds to disentangle great pleas on its own authority.This is an early example of the discourse of 'Cestrian exceptionalism', discussed ably by Barrett 2009. The city is a shelter for the Irish, an day trip for the Welsh and a provisioner for the English, with its handsome location, with the ancient position of the gates, with its experiences of difficult circumstances, and with its river,Since Lucian elsewhere treats amnis, 'river' as feminine, Taylor's conjecture is unnecessary. glorious to behold, fitted by its very name to be a city, kept safe by the watchfullness of the saints, and always reinforced by the help of the heavenly Saviour.

We thought it worth saying these things about the places near Chester in our own little way to repay the small favours by which she offered her nourishment early in life and later, sincerely trying to say other greater and better things about the place itself and venerably to make Chester pre-eminent in the praise of God.